Cognitive Science Glossary: M–O

This section contains key cognitive science concepts starting with letters M–O.

M

Marr's Levels

David Marr's three-level analysis:

1. Computational level: Mathematical information processing—what the system does and why.
2. Algorithmic level: Implementation in specific systems—how the task is performed, what representations are used.
3. Implementation level: Physical realization—in what structure the algorithm is implemented (e.g., neurons).

Materialism

An ontological theory that all existing things comprise matter. Often requires causal interaction between material entities.

Eliminativism: A radical form of materialism claiming that folk psychological concepts (beliefs, desires) don't correspond to anything real.

Mechanism

A system analyzable into distinct parts with describable interactions as rule-governed, including non-mechanical biological systems.

Memory

A cognitive capacity storing information in individual physical structure, retrievable for later cognitive processes through encoding, retention, and retrieval.

Memory types:

• Sensory memory: Very short-term (ms–s)
• Working memory: Short-term, active processing
• Long-term memory:
  • Declarative (semantic, episodic)
  • Procedural

Mental Image

A perception-like mental representation generated from memory rather than sensory stimulus information. Potentially shares phenomenal, cognitive, or neural properties with perception.

Researchers:

• Stephen Kosslyn
• Zenon Pylyshyn (critic)

Mind-Body Problem

The nature of mental/conscious/soul and body/brain/matter relationship.

Major positions:

• Dualism
• Materialism
• Functionalism
• Eliminativism
• Emergentism
• Naturalism

Modularity

1. Psychological functions involve "nature-different" specialized subsystems, not whole-mind capabilities. Often with nativist/localizationist associations.
2. In cognitive neuroscience: functionally and anatomically distinct brain subsystems implementing specific cognitive operations.

Module properties (Fodor):

• Domain specificity
• Informational encapsulation
• Speed
• Obligatoriness

Morphogenesis

Shape and anatomical structure development in individual development.

Multiple Realizability

"Same" higher-level processes can be implemented in various different lower-level systems lacking commonality except at the higher level.

Example: The same software can run on different hardware.

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N

Nativism

Philosophy/psychology that some knowledge about the world is innate—not observation-based.

Representatives:

• Noam Chomsky (language faculty)
• Jerry Fodor (concepts)

Natural Science

Empirical scientific research pursuing objective knowledge of natural phenomena and governing laws, describing phenomena through general lawfulness and underlying mechanisms.

Natural Selection

See Evolution (D–F section).

Neurology

A medical specialty studying nervous system structure, function, and pathological disorders.

Neuropsychology

A branch of psychology describing mental functioning and brain structure/function relationships. Traditionally focuses on localization questions and local brain damage consequences.

Research methods:

• Lesion studies
• Neuroimaging
• TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

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O

Objectivity

Empirical observation foundation requirement; observations are observer-independent when identical methods yield consistent observations regardless of experimenter. Achieved through clearly formulated systematic methods.

Ontogenesis

See: Individual development.

Ontology

1. World or domain basic structure, often categorical.
2. Philosophical theories on world basic structure addressing "What exists?", "What constitutes the world?"

Operationalization

Theory formulation enabling unambiguous testing through defining theory concept application criteria—specifying observation methods for studying described phenomena.

Learning

A cognitive process where individuals acquire new knowledge from observations. Cognitive changes must maintain logical-rational connections between situation information and acquired knowledge.

Learning types:

• Associative learning
• Cognitive learning
• Social learning
• Procedural learning